{"id":61767,"date":"2026-08-02T15:38:39","date_gmt":"2026-08-02T13:38:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/?page_id=61767"},"modified":"2026-08-02T18:55:34","modified_gmt":"2026-08-02T16:55:34","slug":"les-echelles-de-mesure-fujita-ef-pour-les-tornades-torro-pour-la-grele","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/les-orages-en-france-comprendre-et-anticiper\/les-echelles-de-mesure-fujita-ef-pour-les-tornades-torro-pour-la-grele\/","title":{"rendered":"Echelles de mesure : Fujita\/EF et TORRO"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"fusion-fullwidth fullwidth-box fusion-builder-row-1 fusion-flex-container nonhundred-percent-fullwidth non-hundred-percent-height-scrolling\" style=\"--awb-border-radius-top-left:0px;--awb-border-radius-top-right:0px;--awb-border-radius-bottom-right:0px;--awb-border-radius-bottom-left:0px;--awb-flex-wrap:wrap;\" ><div class=\"fusion-builder-row fusion-row fusion-flex-align-items-flex-start fusion-flex-content-wrap\" style=\"max-width:1575px;margin-left: calc(-5% \/ 2 );margin-right: calc(-5% \/ 2 );\"><div class=\"fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-0 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column\" style=\"--awb-bg-blend:overlay;--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:100%;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:2.375%;--awb-margin-bottom-large:0px;--awb-spacing-left-large:2.375%;--awb-width-medium:100%;--awb-spacing-right-medium:2.375%;--awb-spacing-left-medium:2.375%;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-spacing-right-small:2.375%;--awb-spacing-left-small:2.375%;\"><div class=\"fusion-column-wrapper fusion-flex-justify-content-flex-start fusion-content-layout-column\"><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-1\"><p>Une tornade a travers\u00e9 une commune. Des gr\u00ealons ont d\u00e9vast\u00e9 un vignoble. Reste une question imm\u00e9diate : <strong>quelle \u00e9tait l&rsquo;intensit\u00e9 r\u00e9elle du ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne ?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Contrairement aux cyclones, dont la pression centrale se mesure directement, tornades et gr\u00eale \u00e9chappent presque toujours \u00e0 l&rsquo;instrumentation. Un an\u00e9mom\u00e8tre plac\u00e9 dans le vortex d&rsquo;une tornade est d\u00e9truit avant d&rsquo;avoir transmis sa mesure. Les \u00e9chelles utilis\u00e9es reposent donc sur un principe indirect : <strong>\u00e9valuer les d\u00e9g\u00e2ts pour en d\u00e9duire la violence du vent<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Trois syst\u00e8mes coexistent aujourd&rsquo;hui : l&rsquo;<strong>\u00e9chelle de Fujita<\/strong> historique, sa version modernis\u00e9e <strong>EF<\/strong> (Enhanced Fujita), et les \u00e9chelles britanniques <strong>TORRO<\/strong> pour les tornades comme pour la gr\u00eale. Comprendre leurs diff\u00e9rences, c&rsquo;est savoir lire correctement un bulletin ou un rapport post-\u00e9v\u00e9nement.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>Pourquoi des \u00e9chelles de d\u00e9g\u00e2ts ?<\/h2>\n<p>Le vent d&rsquo;une tornade violente d\u00e9passe 300 km\/h sur une largeur parfois inf\u00e9rieure \u00e0 200 m\u00e8tres, pendant quelques dizaines de secondes. Aucune station m\u00e9t\u00e9orologique fixe n&rsquo;a de chance statistique s\u00e9rieuse de se trouver au bon endroit au bon moment.<\/p>\n<p>Les rares mesures directes proviennent de <strong>radars Doppler mobiles<\/strong>, d\u00e9ploy\u00e9s par des \u00e9quipes de chasseurs d&rsquo;orages, et ne concernent qu&rsquo;une infime minorit\u00e9 de cas.<\/p>\n<p>D&rsquo;o\u00f9 la logique adopt\u00e9e d\u00e8s les ann\u00e9es 1970 : <strong>inverser le raisonnement<\/strong>. Observer ce qui a \u00e9t\u00e9 d\u00e9truit, comment, et en d\u00e9duire la vitesse du vent n\u00e9cessaire pour produire ces dommages.<\/p>\n<h2>L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle de Fujita (1971)<\/h2>\n<p>Cr\u00e9\u00e9e par le m\u00e9t\u00e9orologue japonais <strong>Tetsuya Theodore Fujita<\/strong> \u00e0 l&rsquo;Universit\u00e9 de Chicago, l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle F fut la premi\u00e8re classification standardis\u00e9e des tornades.<\/p>\n<\/div><!-- TABLEAU : ECHELLE DE FUJITA ORIGINALE (1971) -->\n\n<style>\n  .f71-comparatif {\n    --f71-border: #dbe3ef;\n    width: 100%;\n    max-width: 1050px;\n    margin: 26px auto;\n    color: #1e293b;\n    font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;\n  }\n\n  .f71-comparatif * {\n    box-sizing: border-box;\n  }\n\n  .f71-comparatif h2 {\n    margin: 0;\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n    color: #ffffff;\n    font-size: clamp(21px, 3vw, 27px);\n    font-weight: 800;\n    line-height: 1.25;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: linear-gradient(135deg, #16a34a 0%, #eab308 34%, #f97316 58%, #dc2626 78%, #7f1d1d 100%);\n    border-radius: 16px 16px 0 0;\n  }\n\n  .f71-intro {\n    margin: 0;\n    padding: 15px 20px;\n    color: #334155;\n    font-size: 15px;\n    font-weight: 700;\n    line-height: 1.55;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: #fff7ed;\n    border-right: 1px solid var(--f71-border);\n    border-left: 1px solid var(--f71-border);\n  }\n\n  .f71-table-wrap {\n    overflow: hidden;\n    background: #ffffff;\n    border: 1px solid var(--f71-border);\n    border-top: 0;\n    border-radius: 0 0 16px 16px;\n    box-shadow: 0 10px 28px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.13);\n  }\n\n  .f71-table {\n    width: 100%;\n    margin: 0;\n    border-collapse: collapse;\n    border-spacing: 0;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table th,\n  .f71-table td {\n    padding: 15px 16px;\n    line-height: 1.45;\n    vertical-align: middle;\n    border: 0;\n    border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table thead th {\n    color: #ffffff;\n    font-size: 14px;\n    font-weight: 800;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: #334155;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table thead th:first-child {\n    width: 12%;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table thead th:nth-child(2) {\n    width: 24%;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table thead th:nth-child(3) {\n    width: 64%;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table tbody th {\n    color: #ffffff;\n    font-size: 20px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    text-align: center;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table tbody td {\n    font-size: 14px;\n    background: #ffffff;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table tbody td:first-of-type {\n    font-size: 15px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    text-align: center;\n    white-space: nowrap;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) th { background: #16a34a; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) th { background: #65a30d; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) th { background: #ca8a04; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) th { background: #ea580c; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(5) th { background: #dc2626; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(6) th { background: #7f1d1d; }\n\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #16a34a; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #65a30d; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #ca8a04; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #ea580c; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(5) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #dc2626; }\n  .f71-table tbody tr:nth-child(6) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #7f1d1d; }\n\n  .f71-table tbody tr:hover td {\n    background: #fef3c7;\n  }\n\n  .f71-table tbody tr:last-child th,\n  .f71-table tbody tr:last-child td {\n    border-bottom: 0;\n  }\n\n  .f71-note {\n    margin: 0;\n    padding: 15px 18px 17px;\n    color: #475569;\n    font-size: 13px;\n    line-height: 1.6;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: #f8fafc;\n    border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .f71-note strong {\n    color: #b91c1c;\n  }\n\n  @media (max-width: 760px) {\n    .f71-comparatif {\n      margin: 20px auto;\n    }\n\n    .f71-comparatif h2 {\n      padding: 17px 12px;\n    }\n\n    .f71-intro {\n      padding: 13px 15px;\n      font-size: 14px;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table-wrap {\n      padding: 12px;\n      background: #f1f5f9;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table,\n    .f71-table tbody,\n    .f71-table tr,\n    .f71-table th,\n    .f71-table td {\n      display: block;\n      width: 100%;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table thead {\n      position: absolute;\n      width: 1px;\n      height: 1px;\n      padding: 0;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);\n      white-space: nowrap;\n      border: 0;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody tr {\n      margin-bottom: 14px;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      background: #ffffff;\n      border: 1px solid #dbe3ef;\n      border-radius: 13px;\n      box-shadow: 0 5px 14px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.08);\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody tr:last-child {\n      margin-bottom: 0;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody th {\n      padding: 13px 15px;\n      border: 0;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody td {\n      position: relative;\n      min-height: 58px;\n      padding: 13px 14px 13px 38%;\n      text-align: left !important;\n      white-space: normal !important;\n      background: #ffffff !important;\n      border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n      border-left: 0 !important;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody td::before {\n      position: absolute;\n      top: 13px;\n      left: 14px;\n      width: 31%;\n      color: #475569;\n      font-size: 11px;\n      font-weight: 900;\n      line-height: 1.35;\n      text-transform: uppercase;\n      content: attr(data-label);\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody td:last-child {\n      border-bottom: 0;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody tr:hover td {\n      background: #fef3c7 !important;\n    }\n\n    .f71-note {\n      margin: 12px -12px -12px;\n      padding: 14px;\n    }\n  }\n\n  @media (max-width: 470px) {\n    .f71-table tbody td {\n      min-height: 0;\n      padding: 12px 13px;\n    }\n\n    .f71-table tbody td::before {\n      position: static;\n      display: block;\n      width: auto;\n      margin-bottom: 5px;\n    }\n  }\n<\/style>\n\n<section class=\"f71-comparatif\" aria-labelledby=\"f71-titre\">\n  <h2 id=\"f71-titre\">L\u2019\u00e9chelle de Fujita (1971)<\/h2>\n\n  <p class=\"f71-intro\">\n    Cr\u00e9\u00e9e par le m\u00e9t\u00e9orologue Tetsuya Theodore Fujita \u00e0 l\u2019Universit\u00e9 de Chicago, l\u2019\u00e9chelle F fut la premi\u00e8re classification standardis\u00e9e de l\u2019intensit\u00e9 des tornades \u00e0 partir des d\u00e9g\u00e2ts observ\u00e9s.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <div class=\"f71-table-wrap\">\n    <table class=\"f71-table\">\n      <thead>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Niveau<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Vent estim\u00e9<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques<\/th>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/thead>\n\n      <tbody>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">F0<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">64 \u00e0 116 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques\">Branches cass\u00e9es, chemin\u00e9es endommag\u00e9es et panneaux arrach\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">F1<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">117 \u00e0 180 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques\">Toitures d\u00e9coiff\u00e9es, caravanes renvers\u00e9es et voitures d\u00e9plac\u00e9es<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">F2<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">181 \u00e0 253 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques\">Toits arrach\u00e9s, maisons mobiles d\u00e9truites et gros arbres d\u00e9racin\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">F3<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">254 \u00e0 332 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques\">Murs et toits de maisons solides d\u00e9truits, trains renvers\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">F4<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">333 \u00e0 418 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques\">Maisons ras\u00e9es, structures projet\u00e9es et voitures envoy\u00e9es en l\u2019air<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">F5<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">419 \u00e0 512 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts typiques\">Maisons emport\u00e9es de leurs fondations et projectiles transport\u00e9s sur de grandes distances<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/tbody>\n    <\/table>\n\n    <p class=\"f71-note\">\n      <strong>\u00c0 retenir :<\/strong> les vitesses de l\u2019\u00e9chelle F originale sont des estimations th\u00e9oriques d\u00e9duites des d\u00e9g\u00e2ts et non des mesures directes. L\u2019\u00e9chelle de Fujita am\u00e9lior\u00e9e (EF), introduite aux \u00c9tats-Unis en 2007, utilise d\u2019autres plages de vent et davantage d\u2019indicateurs de d\u00e9g\u00e2ts : une classe F et une classe EF de m\u00eame num\u00e9ro ne sont donc pas strictement \u00e9quivalentes.\n    <\/p>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-2\"><h3>Les limites de l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle F<\/h3>\n<p>Trois faiblesses sont apparues avec le temps :<\/p>\n<p><strong>Surestimation des vitesses.<\/strong> Les vents n\u00e9cessaires pour d\u00e9truire un b\u00e2timent \u00e9taient largement sur\u00e9valu\u00e9s. Une maison r\u00e9siste rarement \u00e0 plus de 300 km\/h.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Absence de crit\u00e8re de construction.<\/strong> Une maison mal b\u00e2tie s&rsquo;effondre \u00e0 F2 ; une construction norm\u00e9e r\u00e9siste jusqu&rsquo;\u00e0 F4. L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle ne distinguait pas.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Zones sans rep\u00e8res.<\/strong> En rase campagne, sans structure \u00e0 endommager, aucun classement fiable n&rsquo;\u00e9tait possible.<\/p>\n<\/div><!-- TABLEAU : ECHELLE EF (ENHANCED FUJITA, 2007) -->\n\n<style>\n  .ef07-comparatif {\n    --ef07-border: #dbe3ef;\n    width: 100%;\n    max-width: 1050px;\n    margin: 26px auto;\n    color: #1e293b;\n    font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-comparatif * {\n    box-sizing: border-box;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-comparatif h2 {\n    margin: 0;\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n    color: #ffffff;\n    font-size: clamp(21px, 3vw, 27px);\n    font-weight: 800;\n    line-height: 1.25;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: linear-gradient(135deg, #16a34a 0%, #eab308 34%, #f97316 58%, #dc2626 78%, #7f1d1d 100%);\n    border-radius: 16px 16px 0 0;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-intro {\n    margin: 0;\n    padding: 15px 20px;\n    color: #334155;\n    font-size: 15px;\n    font-weight: 700;\n    line-height: 1.55;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: #fff7ed;\n    border-right: 1px solid var(--ef07-border);\n    border-left: 1px solid var(--ef07-border);\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table-wrap {\n    overflow: hidden;\n    background: #ffffff;\n    border: 1px solid var(--ef07-border);\n    border-top: 0;\n    border-radius: 0 0 16px 16px;\n    box-shadow: 0 10px 28px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.13);\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table {\n    width: 100%;\n    margin: 0;\n    border-collapse: collapse;\n    border-spacing: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table th,\n  .ef07-table td {\n    padding: 15px 16px;\n    line-height: 1.45;\n    vertical-align: middle;\n    border: 0;\n    border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table thead th {\n    color: #ffffff;\n    font-size: 14px;\n    font-weight: 800;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: #334155;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table thead th:first-child {\n    width: 12%;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table thead th:nth-child(2) {\n    width: 25%;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table thead th:nth-child(3) {\n    width: 63%;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody th {\n    color: #ffffff;\n    font-size: 20px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    text-align: center;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody td {\n    font-size: 14px;\n    background: #ffffff;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody td:first-of-type {\n    font-size: 15px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    text-align: center;\n    white-space: nowrap;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) th { background: #16a34a; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) th { background: #65a30d; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) th { background: #ca8a04; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) th { background: #ea580c; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(5) th { background: #dc2626; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(6) th { background: #7f1d1d; }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #16a34a; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #65a30d; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #ca8a04; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #ea580c; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(5) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #dc2626; }\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:nth-child(6) td:first-of-type { border-left: 6px solid #7f1d1d; }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:hover td {\n    background: #fef3c7;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:last-child th,\n  .ef07-table tbody tr:last-child td {\n    border-bottom: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-note {\n    margin: 0;\n    padding: 15px 18px 17px;\n    color: #475569;\n    font-size: 13px;\n    line-height: 1.6;\n    text-align: center;\n    background: #f8fafc;\n    border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .ef07-note strong {\n    color: #b91c1c;\n  }\n\n  @media (max-width: 760px) {\n    .ef07-comparatif {\n      margin: 20px auto;\n    }\n\n    .ef07-comparatif h2 {\n      padding: 17px 12px;\n    }\n\n    .ef07-intro {\n      padding: 13px 15px;\n      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}\n<\/style>\n\n<section class=\"ef07-comparatif\" aria-labelledby=\"ef07-titre\">\n  <h2 id=\"ef07-titre\">L\u2019\u00e9chelle EF (Enhanced Fujita, 2007)<\/h2>\n\n  <p class=\"ef07-intro\">\n    Adopt\u00e9e aux \u00c9tats-Unis le 1<sup>er<\/sup> f\u00e9vrier 2007, l\u2019\u00e9chelle EF am\u00e9liore l\u2019estimation de l\u2019intensit\u00e9 des tornades \u00e0 partir des d\u00e9g\u00e2ts, tout en pr\u00e9servant la continuit\u00e9 avec l\u2019\u00e9chelle de Fujita historique.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <div class=\"ef07-table-wrap\">\n    <table class=\"ef07-table\">\n      <thead>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Niveau<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Vent estim\u00e9<br>(rafale de 3 s)<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques<\/th>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/thead>\n\n      <tbody>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF0<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">105 \u00e0 137 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Dommages l\u00e9gers : goutti\u00e8res ou bardages endommag\u00e9s, petites branches cass\u00e9es<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF1<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">138 \u00e0 178 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Toitures fortement endommag\u00e9es, fen\u00eatres bris\u00e9es et mobil-homes retourn\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF2<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">179 \u00e0 218 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Toits arrach\u00e9s, \u00e9l\u00e9ments structurels d\u00e9plac\u00e9s et gros arbres bris\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF3<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">219 \u00e0 266 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">\u00c9tages sup\u00e9rieurs d\u00e9truits, immeubles lourdement endommag\u00e9s et v\u00e9hicules soulev\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF4<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">267 \u00e0 322 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Maisons bien construites ras\u00e9es et projectiles lourds transport\u00e9s<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF5<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Vent estim\u00e9\">Plus de 322 km\/h<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Structures solides balay\u00e9es, fondations mises \u00e0 nu et dommages structurels extr\u00eames<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/tbody>\n    <\/table>\n\n    <p class=\"ef07-note\">\n      <strong>\u00c0 retenir :<\/strong> la classe EF est d\u00e9termin\u00e9e apr\u00e8s enqu\u00eate \u00e0 l\u2019aide d\u2019indicateurs de dommages et de degr\u00e9s de dommage. Les vitesses sont des estimations correspondant \u00e0 des rafales de trois secondes : elles ne sont g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement pas mesur\u00e9es directement dans la tornade. Une classe EF et une classe F portant le m\u00eame num\u00e9ro ne sont pas strictement \u00e9quivalentes.\n    <\/p>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-3\"><h3>Les 28 indicateurs de d\u00e9g\u00e2ts<\/h3>\n<p>La grande innovation de l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle EF repose sur ses <strong>Damage Indicators<\/strong> (DI) : 28 types de structures ou d&rsquo;objets de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence, chacun associ\u00e9 \u00e0 plusieurs <strong>degr\u00e9s de dommage<\/strong> (DoD).<\/p>\n<p>Parmi eux :<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Maison individuelle<\/li>\n<li>Grange m\u00e9tallique<\/li>\n<li>Mobil-home simple ou double<\/li>\n<li>\u00c9cole, h\u00f4pital<\/li>\n<li>Pyl\u00f4ne \u00e9lectrique haute tension<\/li>\n<li>Arbre feuillu, arbre r\u00e9sineux<\/li>\n<li>Panneau publicitaire<\/li>\n<li>Silo, r\u00e9servoir<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Pour chaque combinaison DI\/DoD, une fourchette de vent est associ\u00e9e, avec une valeur attendue, une borne basse et une borne haute. L&rsquo;expert sur le terrain s\u00e9lectionne les indicateurs disponibles et en d\u00e9duit l&rsquo;intensit\u00e9.<\/p>\n<h3>EF-U : le cas des tornades non classables<\/h3>\n<p>Le sigle <strong>EFU<\/strong> (<em>Unknown<\/em>) est attribu\u00e9 aux tornades confirm\u00e9es mais survenues <strong>sans aucun d\u00e9g\u00e2t exploitable<\/strong> \u2014 en plein champ, sur une zone d\u00e9sertique, ou observ\u00e9es uniquement par t\u00e9moin ou vid\u00e9o.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle TORRO pour les tornades (T-Scale)<\/h2>\n<p>D\u00e9velopp\u00e9e en 1972 par <strong>Terence Meaden<\/strong> au sein de la <strong>TORnado and storm Research Organisation<\/strong> britannique, l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle TORRO adopte une logique diff\u00e9rente : elle est <strong>physique avant d&rsquo;\u00eatre empirique<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<h3>Le principe<\/h3>\n<p>La T-Scale se fonde sur la relation entre vitesse du vent et pression dynamique, d\u00e9finie math\u00e9matiquement :<\/p>\n<p><strong>v = 2,365 \u00d7 (T + 4)^1,5<\/strong> (en m\/s)<\/p>\n<p>Elle compte <strong>12 niveaux<\/strong>, de T0 \u00e0 T11, offrant une granularit\u00e9 deux fois plus fine que l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle Fujita.<\/p>\n<\/div><!-- TABLEAU : \u00c9CHELLE T (TORRO) -->\n\n<style>\n.tsc12-scale {\n  --tsc12-border: #dbe3ef;\n  width: 100%;\n  max-width: 1080px;\n  margin: 26px auto;\n  color: #1e293b;\n  font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.tsc12-scale * { box-sizing: border-box; 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}\n  .tsc12-intro { padding: 13px 15px; font-size: 14px; }\n  .tsc12-wrap { padding: 12px; background: #f1f5f9; }\n\n  .tsc12-table,\n  .tsc12-table tbody,\n  .tsc12-table tr,\n  .tsc12-table th,\n  .tsc12-table td {\n    display: block;\n    width: 100%;\n  }\n\n  .tsc12-table thead {\n    position: absolute;\n    width: 1px;\n    height: 1px;\n    padding: 0;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);\n    white-space: nowrap;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .tsc12-table tbody tr {\n    margin-bottom: 14px;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    background: #fff;\n    border: 1px solid #dbe3ef;\n    border-radius: 13px;\n    box-shadow: 0 5px 14px rgba(15, 23, 42, .08);\n  }\n\n  .tsc12-table tbody tr:last-child { margin-bottom: 0; }\n  .tsc12-table tbody th { padding: 13px 15px; border: 0; }\n\n  .tsc12-table tbody td {\n    position: relative;\n    min-height: 56px;\n    padding: 13px 14px 13px 39%;\n    text-align: left !important;\n    background: #fff !important;\n    border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .tsc12-table tbody td::before {\n    position: absolute;\n    top: 13px;\n    left: 14px;\n    width: 31%;\n    color: #475569;\n    font-size: 11px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    line-height: 1.35;\n    text-transform: uppercase;\n    content: attr(data-label);\n  }\n\n  .tsc12-table tbody td:last-child { border-bottom: 0; }\n  .tsc12-table tbody tr:hover td { background: #fff7ed !important; }\n  .tsc12-note { margin: 12px -12px -12px; padding: 14px; }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 470px) {\n  .tsc12-table tbody td { min-height: 0; padding: 12px 13px; }\n  .tsc12-table tbody td::before {\n    position: static;\n    display: block;\n    width: auto;\n    margin-bottom: 5px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<section class=\"tsc12-scale\" aria-labelledby=\"tsc12-title\">\n  <h2 id=\"tsc12-title\">Le bar\u00e8me T-Scale (\u00e9chelle TORRO)<\/h2>\n\n  <p class=\"tsc12-intro\">\n    Mise au point par le chercheur britannique Terence Meaden, la T-Scale classe\n    l\u2019intensit\u00e9 des tornades de <strong>T0 \u00e0 T11<\/strong> \u00e0 partir de plages de\n    vitesses du vent et d\u2019indices observables.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <div class=\"tsc12-wrap\">\n    <table class=\"tsc12-table\">\n      <thead>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Niveau<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Vent<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Intensit\u00e9<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">\u00c9quivalent EF approximatif<\/th>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/thead>\n      <tbody>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T0<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">61 \u00e0 86 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Tr\u00e8s faible<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF0<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T1<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">87 \u00e0 115 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Faible<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF0<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T2<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">116 \u00e0 147 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Mod\u00e9r\u00e9e<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF1<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T3<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">148 \u00e0 184 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Forte<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF1\u2013EF2<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T4<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">185 \u00e0 220 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">S\u00e9v\u00e8re<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF2<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T5<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">221 \u00e0 259 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Intense<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF3<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T6<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">260 \u00e0 299 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Mod\u00e9r\u00e9ment d\u00e9vastatrice<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF3<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T7<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">300 \u00e0 342 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Fortement d\u00e9vastatrice<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF4<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T8<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">343 \u00e0 385 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">S\u00e9v\u00e8rement d\u00e9vastatrice<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF4<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T9<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">386 \u00e0 432 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Intens\u00e9ment d\u00e9vastatrice<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF5<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T10<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">433 \u00e0 482 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Super d\u00e9vastatrice<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef\">\u2248 EF5<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n        <tr><th scope=\"row\">T11<\/th><td data-label=\"Vent\">Plus de 482 km\/h<\/td><td data-label=\"Intensit\u00e9\">Th\u00e9orique<\/td><td data-label=\"\u00c9quivalent EF\"><span class=\"tsc12-ef tsc12-ef-none\">\u2014<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n      <\/tbody>\n    <\/table>\n\n    <p class=\"tsc12-note\">\n      <strong>\u00c0 retenir :<\/strong> les rapprochements avec l\u2019\u00e9chelle EF sont\n      seulement indicatifs. La T-Scale et l\u2019Enhanced Fujita Scale ne reposent\n      pas exactement sur les m\u00eames seuils ni sur la m\u00eame m\u00e9thode d\u2019\u00e9valuation.\n      Une tornade est class\u00e9e selon son intensit\u00e9 maximale estim\u00e9e, et non selon\n      sa taille visible.\n    <\/p>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-4\"><h3>Correspondance simplifi\u00e9e<\/h3>\n<p>La r\u00e8gle de conversion couramment admise :<\/p>\n<p><strong>T0-T1 = F0 | T2-T3 = F1 | T4-T5 = F2 | T6-T7 = F3 | T8-T9 = F4 | T10-T11 = F5<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Autrement dit : <strong>deux niveaux TORRO \u00e9quivalent \u00e0 un niveau Fujita<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle TORRO de la gr\u00eale (H-Scale)<\/h2>\n<p>Moins connue mais tout aussi utile, l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle <strong>H<\/strong> classe les \u00e9pisodes de gr\u00eale selon la taille des gr\u00ealons et les d\u00e9g\u00e2ts occasionn\u00e9s.<\/p>\n<\/div><!-- TABLEAU : BAR\u00c8ME H-SCALE DE LA GR\u00caLE -->\n\n<style>\n.hsc11-scale {\n  --border: #dbe3ef;\n  width: 100%;\n  max-width: 1080px;\n  margin: 26px auto;\n  color: #1e293b;\n  font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.hsc11-scale * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n\n.hsc11-scale h2 {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 20px 16px;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: clamp(22px, 3vw, 29px);\n  font-weight: 900;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #0284c7 0%, #0d9488 24%, #eab308 48%, #f97316 68%, #dc2626 84%, #581c87 100%);\n  border-radius: 16px 16px 0 0;\n}\n\n.hsc11-intro {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 15px 20px;\n  color: #334155;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 700;\n  line-height: 1.55;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #f0f9ff;\n  border-right: 1px solid var(--border);\n  border-left: 1px solid var(--border);\n}\n\n.hsc11-wrap {\n  overflow: hidden;\n  background: #fff;\n  border: 1px solid var(--border);\n  border-top: 0;\n  border-radius: 0 0 16px 16px;\n  box-shadow: 0 10px 28px rgba(15, 23, 42, .13);\n}\n\n.hsc11-table {\n  width: 100%;\n  margin: 0;\n  border-collapse: collapse;\n  border-spacing: 0;\n}\n\n.hsc11-table th,\n.hsc11-table td {\n  padding: 13px 15px;\n  line-height: 1.45;\n  vertical-align: middle;\n  border: 0;\n  border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n}\n\n.hsc11-table thead th {\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #334155;\n}\n\n.hsc11-table thead th:nth-child(1) { width: 10%; }\n.hsc11-table thead th:nth-child(2) { width: 19%; }\n.hsc11-table thead th:nth-child(3) { width: 20%; }\n.hsc11-table thead th:nth-child(4) { width: 51%; }\n\n.hsc11-table tbody th {\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 19px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: center;\n}\n\n.hsc11-table tbody td {\n  font-size: 14px;\n  background: #fff;\n}\n\n.hsc11-table tbody td:nth-child(2),\n.hsc11-table tbody td:nth-child(3) {\n  font-weight: 800;\n  text-align: center;\n}\n\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:hover td { background: #fff7ed; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:last-child th,\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:last-child td { border-bottom: 0; }\n\n\/* Couleurs H0 \u00e0 H10 *\/\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) th  { background: #0284c7; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) th  { background: #0891b2; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) th  { background: #0d9488; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) th  { background: #16a34a; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(5) th  { background: #84a900; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(6) th  { background: #ca8a04; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(7) th  { background: #ea580c; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(8) th  { background: #f43f5e; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(9) th  { background: #dc2626; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(10) th { background: #991b1b; }\n.hsc11-table tbody tr:nth-child(11) th { background: #581c87; }\n\n.hsc11-size {\n  display: inline-block;\n  min-width: 94px;\n  padding: 5px 9px;\n  color: #075985;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #e0f2fe;\n  border: 1px solid #bae6fd;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n}\n\n.hsc11-note {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 15px 18px 17px;\n  color: #475569;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  line-height: 1.6;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #f8fafc;\n  border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n}\n\n.hsc11-note strong { color: #b91c1c; }\n\n\/* Affichage en fiches sur smartphone *\/\n@media (max-width: 760px) {\n  .hsc11-scale { margin: 20px auto; }\n  .hsc11-scale h2 { padding: 17px 12px; }\n  .hsc11-intro { padding: 13px 15px; font-size: 14px; }\n  .hsc11-wrap { padding: 12px; background: #f1f5f9; }\n\n  .hsc11-table,\n  .hsc11-table tbody,\n  .hsc11-table tr,\n  .hsc11-table th,\n  .hsc11-table td {\n    display: block;\n    width: 100%;\n  }\n\n  .hsc11-table thead {\n    position: absolute;\n    width: 1px;\n    height: 1px;\n    padding: 0;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);\n    white-space: nowrap;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .hsc11-table tbody tr {\n    margin-bottom: 14px;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    background: #fff;\n    border: 1px solid #dbe3ef;\n    border-radius: 13px;\n    box-shadow: 0 5px 14px rgba(15, 23, 42, .08);\n  }\n\n  .hsc11-table tbody tr:last-child { margin-bottom: 0; }\n  .hsc11-table tbody th { padding: 13px 15px; border: 0; }\n\n  .hsc11-table tbody td {\n    position: relative;\n    min-height: 56px;\n    padding: 13px 14px 13px 39%;\n    text-align: left !important;\n    background: #fff !important;\n    border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .hsc11-table tbody td::before {\n    position: absolute;\n    top: 13px;\n    left: 14px;\n    width: 31%;\n    color: #475569;\n    font-size: 11px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    line-height: 1.35;\n    text-transform: uppercase;\n    content: attr(data-label);\n  }\n\n  .hsc11-table tbody td:last-child { border-bottom: 0; }\n  .hsc11-table tbody tr:hover td { background: #fff7ed !important; }\n  .hsc11-note { margin: 12px -12px -12px; padding: 14px; }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 470px) {\n  .hsc11-table tbody td { min-height: 0; padding: 12px 13px; }\n  .hsc11-table tbody td::before {\n    position: static;\n    display: block;\n    width: auto;\n    margin-bottom: 5px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<section class=\"hsc11-scale\" aria-labelledby=\"hsc11-title\">\n  <h2 id=\"hsc11-title\">Le bar\u00e8me H-Scale de la gr\u00eale<\/h2>\n\n  <p class=\"hsc11-intro\">\n    L\u2019\u00e9chelle internationale TORRO classe l\u2019intensit\u00e9 d\u2019un \u00e9pisode de gr\u00eale de\n    <strong>H0 \u00e0 H10<\/strong>. Le diam\u00e8tre fournit un rep\u00e8re, mais les d\u00e9g\u00e2ts\n    d\u00e9pendent aussi du nombre de gr\u00ealons, de leur densit\u00e9, du vent et de leur vitesse de chute.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <div class=\"hsc11-wrap\">\n    <table class=\"hsc11-table\">\n      <thead>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Niveau<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Diam\u00e8tre typique<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Comparaison<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques<\/th>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/thead>\n      <tbody>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H0<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">5 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Pois<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Aucun d\u00e9g\u00e2t notable.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H1<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">5 \u00e0 15 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Petit pois \u00e0 bille<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">L\u00e9gers dommages aux plantes, aux cultures et au feuillage.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H2<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">10 \u00e0 20 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Noisette<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Dommages significatifs aux fruits, aux cultures et \u00e0 la v\u00e9g\u00e9tation.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H3<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">20 \u00e0 30 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Noix<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Cultures s\u00e9v\u00e8rement touch\u00e9es, serres et plastiques endommag\u00e9s, peinture et bois marqu\u00e9s.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H4<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">25 \u00e0 40 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Grosse noix \u00e0 petite balle<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Bris de vitres \u00e9tendu et carrosseries de v\u00e9hicules bossel\u00e9es.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H5<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">30 \u00e0 50 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Balle de golf \u00e0 \u0153uf<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Vitres massivement bris\u00e9es, toitures en tuiles endommag\u00e9es et risque important de blessures.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H6<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">40 \u00e0 60 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">\u0152uf de poule<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Carrosseries fortement marqu\u00e9es, y compris sur des a\u00e9ronefs au sol, et murs de briques piquet\u00e9s.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H7<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">50 \u00e0 75 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Balle de tennis<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">Toitures s\u00e9v\u00e8rement endommag\u00e9es et risque de blessures graves.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H8<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">60 \u00e0 90 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Orange<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts extr\u00eames aux v\u00e9hicules et aux a\u00e9ronefs ; blessures graves possibles.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H9<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">75 \u00e0 100 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Pamplemousse<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts structurels \u00e9tendus et risque de blessures s\u00e9v\u00e8res, voire mortelles, en ext\u00e9rieur.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">H10<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Diam\u00e8tre typique\"><span class=\"hsc11-size\">Plus de 100 mm<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Comparaison\">Melon<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"D\u00e9g\u00e2ts caract\u00e9ristiques\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts structurels majeurs et risque vital tr\u00e8s \u00e9lev\u00e9 pour toute personne expos\u00e9e.<\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/tbody>\n    <\/table>\n\n    <p class=\"hsc11-note\">\n      <strong>\u00c0 retenir :<\/strong> le diam\u00e8tre indiqu\u00e9 est une plage approximative et non un crit\u00e8re unique.\n      Un \u00e9pisode peut \u00eatre class\u00e9 plus haut si les gr\u00ealons sont tr\u00e8s nombreux, denses ou pouss\u00e9s par de fortes rafales.\n      Les comparaisons avec des objets restent indicatives.\n    <\/p>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-5\"><h3>Ce que mesure r\u00e9ellement la H-Scale<\/h3>\n<p>Contrairement \u00e0 une id\u00e9e re\u00e7ue, la H-Scale ne d\u00e9pend pas uniquement du diam\u00e8tre. Elle int\u00e8gre \u00e9galement :<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>La <strong>densit\u00e9<\/strong> des gr\u00ealons au sol<\/li>\n<li>La <strong>vitesse d&rsquo;impact<\/strong>, li\u00e9e \u00e0 la taille mais aussi au vent<\/li>\n<li>La <strong>dur\u00e9e<\/strong> de la chute<\/li>\n<li>Les <strong>d\u00e9g\u00e2ts observ\u00e9s<\/strong> sur v\u00e9g\u00e9tation, b\u00e2ti et v\u00e9hicules<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Un \u00e9pisode de gr\u00ealons de 25 mm tombant dru pendant dix minutes peut se classer plus haut qu&rsquo;une chute isol\u00e9e de gr\u00ealons de 30 mm.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>Application en France<\/h2>\n<h3>Qui classe les ph\u00e9nom\u00e8nes ?<\/h3>\n<p>En France, plusieurs acteurs interviennent :<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>M\u00e9t\u00e9o-France<\/strong> pour l&rsquo;expertise officielle et les rapports post-\u00e9v\u00e9nement<\/li>\n<li><strong>KERAUNOS<\/strong>, l&rsquo;Observatoire fran\u00e7ais des tornades et orages violents, qui tient une base de donn\u00e9es nationale<\/li>\n<li>Les <strong>assureurs<\/strong> et experts, pour l&rsquo;\u00e9valuation des dommages<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle <strong>EF<\/strong> est aujourd&rsquo;hui la r\u00e9f\u00e9rence utilis\u00e9e pour les tornades fran\u00e7aises, la <strong>H-Scale<\/strong> TORRO servant de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence pour la gr\u00eale.<\/p>\n<h3>Les statistiques fran\u00e7aises<\/h3>\n<p>La France enregistre en moyenne <strong>45 \u00e0 50 tornades par an<\/strong>, dont la grande majorit\u00e9 reste faible :<\/p>\n<\/div><!-- R\u00c9PARTITION DES TORNADES PAR INTENSIT\u00c9 -->\n\n<style>\n.ref26-tornades {\n  --border: #dbe3ef;\n  width: 100%;\n  max-width: 900px;\n  margin: 26px auto;\n  color: #1e293b;\n  font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ref26-tornades * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n}\n\n.ref26-tornades h2 {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 20px 16px;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: clamp(22px, 3vw, 29px);\n  font-weight: 900;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #0284c7, #f59e0b 58%, #b91c1c);\n  border-radius: 16px 16px 0 0;\n}\n\n.ref26-intro {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 14px 20px;\n  color: #334155;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 700;\n  line-height: 1.55;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #f8fafc;\n  border-right: 1px solid var(--border);\n  border-left: 1px solid var(--border);\n}\n\n.ref26-wrap {\n  overflow: hidden;\n  background: #fff;\n  border: 1px solid var(--border);\n  border-top: 0;\n  border-radius: 0 0 16px 16px;\n  box-shadow: 0 10px 28px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.13);\n}\n\n.ref26-table {\n  width: 100%;\n  margin: 0;\n  border-collapse: collapse;\n}\n\n.ref26-table th,\n.ref26-table td {\n  padding: 16px 18px;\n  line-height: 1.45;\n  vertical-align: middle;\n  border: 0;\n  border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n}\n\n.ref26-table thead th {\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: left;\n  background: #334155;\n}\n\n.ref26-table thead th:first-child {\n  width: 31%;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody th {\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: center;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) th {\n  background: #0284c7;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) th {\n  background: #eab308;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) th {\n  background: #f97316;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) th {\n  background: #b91c1c;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody td {\n  background: #fff;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody tr:hover td {\n  background: #fff7ed;\n}\n\n.ref26-table tbody tr:last-child th,\n.ref26-table tbody tr:last-child td {\n  border-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ref26-value-row {\n  display: flex;\n  align-items: center;\n  gap: 14px;\n}\n\n.ref26-value {\n  flex: 0 0 68px;\n  color: #0f172a;\n  font-size: 18px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: right;\n}\n\n.ref26-bar-bg {\n  flex: 1;\n  height: 15px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  background: #e2e8f0;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n}\n\n.ref26-bar {\n  display: block;\n  width: var(--value);\n  min-width: 7px;\n  height: 100%;\n  border-radius: inherit;\n}\n\n.ref26-ef01 {\n  background: linear-gradient(90deg, #38bdf8, #0284c7);\n}\n\n.ref26-ef2 {\n  background: linear-gradient(90deg, #fde047, #eab308);\n}\n\n.ref26-ef3 {\n  background: linear-gradient(90deg, #fb923c, #f97316);\n}\n\n.ref26-ef45 {\n  background: linear-gradient(90deg, #ef4444, #991b1b);\n}\n\n.ref26-note {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 15px 18px 17px;\n  color: #475569;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  line-height: 1.6;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #f8fafc;\n  border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n}\n\n.ref26-note strong {\n  color: #b91c1c;\n}\n\n\/* Affichage sur smartphone *\/\n@media (max-width: 650px) {\n  .ref26-tornades {\n    margin: 20px auto;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-tornades h2 {\n    padding: 17px 12px;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-intro {\n    padding: 13px 15px;\n    font-size: 14px;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-wrap {\n    padding: 12px;\n    background: #f1f5f9;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table,\n  .ref26-table tbody,\n  .ref26-table tr,\n  .ref26-table th,\n  .ref26-table td {\n    display: block;\n    width: 100%;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table thead {\n    position: absolute;\n    width: 1px;\n    height: 1px;\n    padding: 0;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);\n    white-space: nowrap;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table tbody tr {\n    margin-bottom: 13px;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    background: #fff;\n    border: 1px solid var(--border);\n    border-radius: 13px;\n    box-shadow: 0 5px 14px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.08);\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table tbody tr:last-child {\n    margin-bottom: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table tbody th {\n    padding: 12px 14px;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table tbody td {\n    padding: 15px 14px;\n    background: #fff !important;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-table tbody td::before {\n    display: block;\n    margin-bottom: 8px;\n    color: #64748b;\n    font-size: 11px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    text-transform: uppercase;\n    content: attr(data-label);\n  }\n\n  .ref26-value-row {\n    gap: 10px;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-value {\n    flex-basis: 58px;\n    font-size: 17px;\n  }\n\n  .ref26-note {\n    margin: 12px -12px -12px;\n    padding: 14px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<section class=\"ref26-tornades\" aria-labelledby=\"ref26-title\">\n\n  <h2 id=\"ref26-title\">\n    R\u00e9partition des tornades selon leur intensit\u00e9\n  <\/h2>\n\n  <p class=\"ref26-intro\">\n    La grande majorit\u00e9 des tornades recens\u00e9es sont de faible intensit\u00e9 :\n    les cat\u00e9gories <strong>EF0 et EF1 repr\u00e9sentent environ 80\u00a0% des cas<\/strong>.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <div class=\"ref26-wrap\">\n\n    <table class=\"ref26-table\">\n      <thead>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Intensit\u00e9<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Proportion approximative<\/th>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/thead>\n\n      <tbody>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF0 \u2013 EF1<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Proportion approximative\">\n            <div class=\"ref26-value-row\">\n              <span class=\"ref26-value\">\u2248 80\u00a0%<\/span>\n              <span class=\"ref26-bar-bg\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                <span class=\"ref26-bar ref26-ef01\"\n                      style=\"--value:80%;\"><\/span>\n              <\/span>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF2<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Proportion approximative\">\n            <div class=\"ref26-value-row\">\n              <span class=\"ref26-value\">\u2248 15\u00a0%<\/span>\n              <span class=\"ref26-bar-bg\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                <span class=\"ref26-bar ref26-ef2\"\n                      style=\"--value:15%;\"><\/span>\n              <\/span>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF3<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Proportion approximative\">\n            <div class=\"ref26-value-row\">\n              <span class=\"ref26-value\">\u2248 4\u00a0%<\/span>\n              <span class=\"ref26-bar-bg\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                <span class=\"ref26-bar ref26-ef3\"\n                      style=\"--value:4%;\"><\/span>\n              <\/span>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">EF4 \u2013 EF5<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Proportion approximative\">\n            <div class=\"ref26-value-row\">\n              <span class=\"ref26-value\">< 1\u00a0%<\/span>\n              <span class=\"ref26-bar-bg\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                <span class=\"ref26-bar ref26-ef45\"\n                      style=\"--value:1%;\"><\/span>\n              <\/span>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/tbody>\n    <\/table>\n\n    <p class=\"ref26-note\">\n      <strong>\u00c0 retenir :<\/strong> les tornades violentes EF4 et EF5\n      sont extr\u00eamement rares. Ces proportions restent indicatives et\n      peuvent varier selon le territoire, la p\u00e9riode \u00e9tudi\u00e9e et la\n      qualit\u00e9 du recensement.\n    <\/p>\n\n  <\/div>\n<\/section><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-6\"><p>Les tornades EF4 restent exceptionnelles : la tornade d&rsquo;<strong>Hautmont<\/strong> (Nord, 3 ao\u00fbt 2008), class\u00e9e EF4, avec 3 morts et une centaine de bless\u00e9s, constitue l&rsquo;un des cas les plus marquants des derni\u00e8res d\u00e9cennies.<\/p>\n<p>Aucune tornade <strong>EF5<\/strong> n&rsquo;a \u00e9t\u00e9 officiellement recens\u00e9e en France.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>Les limites de toutes ces \u00e9chelles<\/h2>\n<h3>Ce qu&rsquo;elles ne mesurent pas<\/h3>\n<p>Les \u00e9chelles d&rsquo;intensit\u00e9 ne rendent compte ni de la <strong>taille<\/strong> du ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne, ni de sa <strong>dur\u00e9e<\/strong>, ni de la <strong>distance parcourue<\/strong>. Une tornade EF2 traversant 40 km peut causer plus de dommages cumul\u00e9s qu&rsquo;une EF3 de 500 m\u00e8tres.<\/p>\n<h3>Le biais de la densit\u00e9 du b\u00e2ti<\/h3>\n<p>Une tornade violente en zone rurale sera syst\u00e9matiquement sous-class\u00e9e, faute de structures \u00e0 endommager. Ce biais fausse les comparaisons historiques et g\u00e9ographiques.<\/p>\n<h3>La subjectivit\u00e9 de l&rsquo;expertise<\/h3>\n<p>Malgr\u00e9 la standardisation des indicateurs, le classement d\u00e9pend de l&rsquo;appr\u00e9ciation d&rsquo;un expert sur le terrain. Des \u00e9carts d&rsquo;un niveau entre \u00e9valuateurs ne sont pas rares.<\/p>\n<h3>L&rsquo;apport du radar Doppler<\/h3>\n<p>Les radars Doppler \u00e0 haute r\u00e9solution mesurent d\u00e9sormais directement les vitesses de rotation. Ces donn\u00e9es ne sont toutefois <strong>pas retenues<\/strong> dans le classement officiel EF, qui reste fond\u00e9 sur les d\u00e9g\u00e2ts observ\u00e9s au sol.<\/p>\n<\/div><!-- COMPARATIF DES \u00c9CHELLES FUJITA, ENHANCED FUJITA ET TORRO -->\n\n<style>\n.ecl26-comparatif {\n  --border: #dbe3ef;\n  width: 100%;\n  max-width: 1120px;\n  margin: 26px auto;\n  color: #1e293b;\n  font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ecl26-comparatif * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n}\n\n.ecl26-comparatif h2 {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 20px 16px;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: clamp(22px, 3vw, 29px);\n  font-weight: 900;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #075985 0%, #4338ca 52%, #b91c1c 100%);\n  border-radius: 16px 16px 0 0;\n}\n\n.ecl26-intro {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 14px 20px;\n  color: #334155;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 700;\n  line-height: 1.55;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #f8fafc;\n  border-right: 1px solid var(--border);\n  border-left: 1px solid var(--border);\n}\n\n.ecl26-wrap {\n  overflow: hidden;\n  background: #fff;\n  border: 1px solid var(--border);\n  border-top: 0;\n  border-radius: 0 0 16px 16px;\n  box-shadow: 0 10px 28px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.13);\n}\n\n.ecl26-table {\n  width: 100%;\n  margin: 0;\n  border-collapse: collapse;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table th,\n.ecl26-table td {\n  padding: 14px 13px;\n  line-height: 1.45;\n  vertical-align: middle;\n  border: 0;\n  border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table thead th {\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #334155;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table thead th:first-child {\n  width: 20%;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody th {\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  text-align: center;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:nth-child(1) th {\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #475569, #64748b);\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:nth-child(2) th {\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #075985, #0284c7);\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:nth-child(3) th {\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #5b21b6, #7c3aed);\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:nth-child(4) th {\n  background: linear-gradient(135deg, #b45309, #f97316);\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody td {\n  color: #334155;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 700;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #fff;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:hover td {\n  background: #f0f9ff;\n}\n\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:last-child th,\n.ecl26-table tbody tr:last-child td {\n  border-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ecl26-date,\n.ecl26-levels {\n  display: inline-block;\n  padding: 5px 9px;\n  font-weight: 900;\n  white-space: nowrap;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n}\n\n.ecl26-date {\n  color: #075985;\n  background: #e0f2fe;\n  border: 1px solid #bae6fd;\n}\n\n.ecl26-levels {\n  color: #6b21a8;\n  background: #f3e8ff;\n  border: 1px solid #e9d5ff;\n}\n\n.ecl26-usage {\n  color: #166534;\n  font-weight: 900;\n}\n\n.ecl26-note {\n  margin: 0;\n  padding: 15px 18px 17px;\n  color: #475569;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  line-height: 1.6;\n  text-align: center;\n  background: #f8fafc;\n  border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n}\n\n.ecl26-note strong {\n  color: #b91c1c;\n}\n\n\/* Affichage en fiches sur smartphone et tablette *\/\n@media (max-width: 850px) {\n  .ecl26-comparatif {\n    margin: 20px auto;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-comparatif h2 {\n    padding: 17px 12px;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-intro {\n    padding: 13px 15px;\n    font-size: 14px;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-wrap {\n    padding: 12px;\n    background: #f1f5f9;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table,\n  .ecl26-table tbody,\n  .ecl26-table tr,\n  .ecl26-table th,\n  .ecl26-table td {\n    display: block;\n    width: 100%;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table thead {\n    position: absolute;\n    width: 1px;\n    height: 1px;\n    padding: 0;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);\n    white-space: nowrap;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody tr {\n    margin-bottom: 14px;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    background: #fff;\n    border: 1px solid var(--border);\n    border-radius: 13px;\n    box-shadow: 0 5px 14px rgba(15, 23, 42, 0.08);\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody tr:last-child {\n    margin-bottom: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody th {\n    padding: 14px;\n    font-size: 17px;\n    border: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody td {\n    position: relative;\n    min-height: 52px;\n    padding: 13px 14px 13px 42%;\n    text-align: left;\n    background: #fff !important;\n    border-bottom: 1px solid #e2e8f0;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody td::before {\n    position: absolute;\n    top: 14px;\n    left: 14px;\n    width: 34%;\n    color: #64748b;\n    font-size: 11px;\n    font-weight: 900;\n    line-height: 1.3;\n    text-transform: uppercase;\n    content: attr(data-label);\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody td:last-child {\n    border-bottom: 0;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-note {\n    margin: 12px -12px -12px;\n    padding: 14px;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ecl26-table tbody td {\n    min-height: 0;\n    padding: 12px 13px;\n  }\n\n  .ecl26-table tbody td::before {\n    position: static;\n    display: block;\n    width: auto;\n    margin-bottom: 6px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<section class=\"ecl26-comparatif\" aria-labelledby=\"ecl26-title\">\n\n  <h2 id=\"ecl26-title\">\n    Comparatif des \u00e9chelles de tornades et de gr\u00eale\n  <\/h2>\n\n  <p class=\"ecl26-intro\">\n    Quatre bar\u00e8mes historiques ou actuels permettent de classer\n    <strong>l\u2019intensit\u00e9 des tornades<\/strong> ou le\n    <strong>potentiel destructeur de la gr\u00eale<\/strong>.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <div class=\"ecl26-wrap\">\n\n    <table class=\"ecl26-table\">\n      <thead>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"col\">\u00c9chelle<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Cr\u00e9\u00e9e en<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Pays d\u2019origine<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Niveaux<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Base d\u2019\u00e9valuation<\/th>\n          <th scope=\"col\">Usage actuel<\/th>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/thead>\n\n      <tbody>\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">Fujita (F)<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Cr\u00e9\u00e9e en\"><span class=\"ecl26-date\">1971<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Pays d\u2019origine\">\u00c9tats-Unis<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Niveaux\"><span class=\"ecl26-levels\">F0 \u00e0 F5<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Base d\u2019\u00e9valuation\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts observ\u00e9s<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Usage actuel\"><span class=\"ecl26-usage\">Archives et \u00e9tudes historiques<\/span><\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">Enhanced Fujita (EF)<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Cr\u00e9\u00e9e en\"><span class=\"ecl26-date\">2007<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Pays d\u2019origine\">\u00c9tats-Unis<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Niveaux\"><span class=\"ecl26-levels\">EF0 \u00e0 EF5 + EFU<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Base d\u2019\u00e9valuation\">D\u00e9g\u00e2ts et 28 indicateurs<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Usage actuel\"><span class=\"ecl26-usage\">R\u00e9f\u00e9rence aux \u00c9tats-Unis ; adaptations internationales<\/span><\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">TORRO (T)<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Cr\u00e9\u00e9e en\"><span class=\"ecl26-date\">1972<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Pays d\u2019origine\">Royaume-Uni<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Niveaux\"><span class=\"ecl26-levels\">T0 \u00e0 T11<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Base d\u2019\u00e9valuation\">Vitesse du vent et formule physique<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Usage actuel\"><span class=\"ecl26-usage\">Royaume-Uni, Europe et recherche<\/span><\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n\n        <tr>\n          <th scope=\"row\">TORRO gr\u00eale (H)<\/th>\n          <td data-label=\"Cr\u00e9\u00e9e en\"><span class=\"ecl26-date\">1986<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Pays d\u2019origine\">Royaume-Uni<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Niveaux\"><span class=\"ecl26-levels\">H0 \u00e0 H10<\/span><\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Base d\u2019\u00e9valuation\">Taille, caract\u00e9ristiques et d\u00e9g\u00e2ts<\/td>\n          <td data-label=\"Usage actuel\"><span class=\"ecl26-usage\">Classification des \u00e9pisodes de gr\u00eale<\/span><\/td>\n        <\/tr>\n      <\/tbody>\n    <\/table>\n\n    <p class=\"ecl26-note\">\n      <strong>Attention :<\/strong> EFU signifie que l\u2019intensit\u00e9 d\u2019une tornade\n      ne peut pas \u00eatre d\u00e9termin\u00e9e, g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement faute d\u2019indicateurs de d\u00e9g\u00e2ts\n      suffisamment fiables. Il ne s\u2019agit donc pas d\u2019un niveau sup\u00e9rieur \u00e0 EF5.\n    <\/p>\n\n  <\/div>\n<\/section><div class=\"fusion-text fusion-text-7\"><h2>FAQ<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Quelle \u00e9chelle est utilis\u00e9e en France ?<\/strong> L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle EF est la r\u00e9f\u00e9rence pour les tornades, la H-Scale TORRO pour la gr\u00eale. KERAUNOS et M\u00e9t\u00e9o-France assurent le classement.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pourquoi l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle F a-t-elle \u00e9t\u00e9 remplac\u00e9e ?<\/strong> Elle surestimait les vitesses de vent et ne tenait pas compte de la qualit\u00e9 de construction des b\u00e2timents endommag\u00e9s.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Une tornade EF5 est-elle possible en France ?<\/strong> Th\u00e9oriquement oui, mais aucune n&rsquo;a jamais \u00e9t\u00e9 recens\u00e9e. Les conditions atmosph\u00e9riques n\u00e9cessaires sont beaucoup plus rares qu&rsquo;en Am\u00e9rique du Nord.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Comment mesure-t-on le vent d&rsquo;une tornade ?<\/strong> Presque jamais directement. L&rsquo;intensit\u00e9 est d\u00e9duite des d\u00e9g\u00e2ts observ\u00e9s, selon les indicateurs de l&rsquo;\u00e9chelle EF.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Quelle est la diff\u00e9rence entre EF et TORRO ?<\/strong> L&rsquo;EF repose sur l&rsquo;analyse des d\u00e9g\u00e2ts avec 6 niveaux ; TORRO se fonde sur une formule physique avec 12 niveaux, soit une r\u00e9solution deux fois plus fine.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00c0 partir de quelle taille la gr\u00eale est-elle dangereuse ?<\/strong> D\u00e8s H4 (25 \u2013 40 mm), les d\u00e9g\u00e2ts mat\u00e9riels deviennent significatifs. Au-del\u00e0 de H7, les blessures graves sont possibles.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Peut-on classer une tornade sans d\u00e9g\u00e2ts ?<\/strong> Oui, sous la mention EFU (<em>Unknown<\/em>), lorsque la tornade est confirm\u00e9e mais qu&rsquo;aucun indicateur de dommage n&rsquo;est exploitable.<\/p>\n<p>Fujita, EF, TORRO : trois grilles de lecture pour un m\u00eame besoin \u2014 quantifier l&rsquo;intensit\u00e9 de ph\u00e9nom\u00e8nes qui \u00e9chappent \u00e0 la mesure directe. L&rsquo;\u00e9chelle EF s&rsquo;impose aujourd&rsquo;hui comme la r\u00e9f\u00e9rence internationale pour les tornades, tandis que la H-Scale reste l&rsquo;outil le plus complet pour la gr\u00eale.<\/p>\n<p>Toutes partagent une m\u00eame limite : elles d\u00e9crivent les <strong>cons\u00e9quences<\/strong>, pas la cause. Un classement post-\u00e9v\u00e9nement n&rsquo;a jamais prot\u00e9g\u00e9 personne. Seule l&rsquo;anticipation, fond\u00e9e sur la surveillance en temps r\u00e9el des structures orageuses, permet de r\u00e9agir \u00e0 temps.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Suivez l&rsquo;\u00e9volution des cellules orageuses sur notre <a href=\"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/cartes-meteo\/radar-meteo\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">radar m\u00e9t\u00e9o<\/a> et notre <a href=\"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/cartes-meteo\/carte-de-la-foudre-en-direct-en-france-suivez-chaque-impact-en-temps-reel\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">carte de la foudre en direct<\/a>, consultez nos <a href=\"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/category\/previsions-meteo-france\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">alertes m\u00e9t\u00e9o<\/a> et approfondissez avec notre dossier <a href=\"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/les-orages-en-france-comprendre-et-anticiper\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Les orages en France : comprendre et anticiper<\/a>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div><!--\n  BANNI\u00c8RE \u00ab MENU ORAGES \u00bb POUR WORDPRESS\n  \u00c0 coller dans un bloc \u00ab HTML personnalis\u00e9 \u00bb.\n-->\n\n<style>\n  .amo-orage-banner,\n  .amo-orage-banner * {\n    box-sizing: border-box;\n  }\n\n  .amo-orage-banner {\n    --amo-night: #07182f;\n    --amo-blue: #0a3158;\n    --amo-electric: #56d4ff;\n    --amo-yellow: #ffd447;\n    --amo-white: #ffffff;\n    width: min(1100px, 100%);\n    margin: 28px auto;\n    font-family: inherit;\n  }\n\n  .amo-orage-banner__link {\n    position: relative;\n    isolation: isolate;\n    display: grid;\n    grid-template-columns: minmax(0, 1fr) auto;\n    gap: clamp(22px, 5vw, 64px);\n    align-items: center;\n    min-height: 250px;\n    padding: clamp(30px, 6vw, 66px);\n    overflow: hidden;\n    color: var(--amo-white) !important;\n    text-decoration: none !important;\n    border: 1px solid rgba(86, 212, 255, 0.34);\n    border-radius: 28px;\n    background:\n      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auto;\n    }\n\n    .amo-orage-banner__link {\n      padding: 27px 20px;\n    }\n\n    .amo-orage-banner__content {\n      padding-right: 0;\n    }\n\n    .amo-orage-banner__description {\n      max-width: 100%;\n    }\n  }\n\n  @media (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce) {\n    .amo-orage-banner__link,\n    .amo-orage-banner__cta-arrow {\n      transition: none;\n    }\n  }\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"amo-orage-banner\">\n  <a\n    class=\"amo-orage-banner__link\"\n    href=\"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/les-orages-en-france-comprendre-et-anticiper\/\"\n    aria-label=\"Acc\u00e9der au menu consacr\u00e9 aux orages\"\n  >\n    <div class=\"amo-orage-banner__content\">\n      <p class=\"amo-orage-banner__kicker\">Comprendre \u2022 Pr\u00e9voir \u2022 Se prot\u00e9ger<\/p>\n      <p class=\"amo-orage-banner__title\">Menu Orages<\/p>\n      <p class=\"amo-orage-banner__description\">\n        Comprendre les ph\u00e9nom\u00e8nes orageux, reconna\u00eetre les principaux dangers\n        et d\u00e9couvrir les conseils essentiels pour mieux les anticiper.\n      <\/p>\n      <span class=\"amo-orage-banner__cta\">\n        D\u00e9couvrir le dossier orages\n        <span class=\"amo-orage-banner__cta-arrow\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u2192<\/span>\n      <\/span>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <span class=\"amo-orage-banner__visual\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n      <span class=\"amo-orage-banner__bolt\"><\/span>\n    <\/span>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":61784,"parent":61283,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_seopress_titles_title":"\u00c9chelles Fujita, EF et TORRO : mesurer tornades et gr\u00eale | Alertes-M\u00e9t\u00e9o","_seopress_titles_desc":"\u00c9chelle de Fujita, EF, TORRO, T-Scale : comment sont class\u00e9es les tornades et la gr\u00eale. Bar\u00e8mes complets, seuils de vent et d\u00e9g\u00e2ts associ\u00e9s.","_seopress_robots_index":"","_seopress_robots_follow":"","_seopress_robots_imageindex":"","_seopress_robots_snippet":"","_seopress_robots_primary_cat":"","_seopress_robots_breadcrumbs":"","_seopress_robots_freeze_modified_date":"","_seopress_robots_custom_modified_date":"","_seopress_robots_canonical":"","_seopress_social_fb_title":"","_seopress_social_fb_desc":"","_seopress_social_fb_img":"","_seopress_social_fb_img_attachment_id":0,"_seopress_social_fb_img_width":0,"_seopress_social_fb_img_height":0,"_seopress_social_twitter_title":"","_seopress_social_twitter_desc":"","_seopress_social_twitter_img":"","_seopress_social_twitter_img_attachment_id":0,"_seopress_social_twitter_img_width":0,"_seopress_social_twitter_img_height":0,"_seopress_redirections_value":"","_seopress_redirections_enabled":"","_seopress_redirections_enabled_regex":"","_seopress_redirections_logged_status":"both","_seopress_redirections_param":"","_seopress_redirections_type":301,"_seopress_analysis_target_kw":"temperature mer","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-61767","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/61767","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=61767"}],"version-history":[{"count":15,"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/61767\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":61817,"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/61767\/revisions\/61817"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/61283"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/61784"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/alertes-meteo.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=61767"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}